Essay Sample on Early Modern Ireland

Introduction

Ireland experienced numerous political, social, and religious conflicts between the 16th and the early 18th centuries. Several historical events that significantly affected the nation occurred during this era. This paper aims at answering four questions that are related to early modern Ireland. The questions will cover the English reformation, the Plantation of Ulster, the 1641 Irish rebellion, and Irish patriotism in the early 18th century.

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English Reformation

The 16th century was a period characterized by several changes in Ireland. Ireland had been a Christian nation under the Catholic Church at the onset of the 16th century (Nicholas 213). The Christian faith at that time was incorporated in the Celtic traditions as introduced by Patrick and some Irish Saints (White 24). Though Catholicism originated from the Western part of Europe, it did not have any colonization ambitions but promoted asceticism. Therefore, Ireland was practicing Irish Catholicism in the early years of the 16th century.

The Church in Ireland had been well-established before the reformation took place. The Irish Church had managed to set up a vast network of parishes in Pale and the Gaelic Island (Jefferies). The churches had many priests and bishops who oversaw the practice and commitment to the Catholic doctrines (Jefferies). However, it faced immense financial constraints as it could not sponsor its clergy to pursue a university education. Also, the church buildings were dilapidated since there were no resources to renovate them. Thus, the Church in Ireland had a widespread influence despite its shortcomings.

Ireland’s position under the Catholic Church contributed to the English government’s interest in reforming the nation. The then English King, Henry VIII, intended to have authority over the Church in England (White 25). Henry VIII wanted to have a male heir to the throne, but his wife, Catherine of Aragon, could not bear children again (Cartwright). He wanted to divorce her and marry Ann Boleyn, but this was against the norm of the Catholic Church. He, thus, made plans to control the Church in Ireland and force it to conform to new practices.

King Henry VIII’s efforts to engage the Pope, who was the head of the Catholic Church, were deemed futile. Henry VIII wrote a letter to Pope Clement VII requesting him to allow his marriage annulment by claiming that it was invalid (Cartwright). However, the Pope did not heed the request as he had a cordial relationship with Catherine’s relative, Emperor Charles V of Spain. He instructed Cardinal Lorenzo Campeggio to enquire about the issue and preside over a court in England (Cartwright). Nevertheless, there was no progress on allowing the marriage annulment; hence, Henry VII sought other alternative methods of carrying out his mission.

King Henry VIII took control of the Church with the assistance of his ministers and several Parliamentary Acts. After the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer officially invalidated the king’s marriage the Pope excluded him from the Church (Cartwright). However, the Pope’s power had diminished after the passage of the Restraint of Appeals Act in 1533. The English Monarch became the supreme authority. Additionally, the 1534 Act of Supremacy and the Treason Act reinforced the government’s domination over the church. Hence, with the newly gained power, the English government could enforce its reforms in Ireland.

Church

The English Reformation began with the appointment of Thomas Cromwell as the new vicar-general. King Henry VIII gave Cromwell the mandate to reform the church (Cartwright). The general impeded some of the church’s activities, such as abolishing Catholic monasteries. He also passed several injunctions on the recommended teachings and doctrines (Cartwright). These changes caused diverse reactions among church leaders as radical ones supported the reforms while the conservatives rejected them.

The reforms by the English government also stirred revolts by the local political leaders. Ireland had reverted to the Gaelic laws which were enforced by the native Irish and the Anglo-Irish lordships (Ellis 74). The Kildare earls, who had been the most powerful Anglo-Irish chiefs, initiated a rebellion after King Henry appointed William Keffington as the deputy of Ireland in 1534 (Shwartz 29). However, the rebellion was unsuccessful, and with the passage of bills by the parliament, King Henry VIII declared the nation as the Kingdom of Ireland.

English reformations highlighted more of the English issues than in those in Ireland. When the English monarchs started exerting their power over Ireland in the 16th century, they transferred the problems in England to the Irish colony (Meigs 57). For instance, the Tudor kingship in England comprised religious conflicts, problems between local government and the Crown, as well as constitutional differences (Harold 143). Thus, when the English government took control of Ireland and initiated its reforms, the same challenges diverted into Ireland.

The Plantation of Ulster

In the 17th century, settlers Great Britain occupied the Ulster Province of Ireland. The Plantation of Ulster, which took place under the rule of King James I, had a significant impact on English history (Hill 24). Ulster was a well-endowed land that the English men had not conquered by the end of the 16th century. Plantation of Ulster began after a failed attempt by the Ulster leader, O’Neil to fight for the Ulster land (Maxwell 167). The chief’s power further diminished when all the Irish chieftains became the crown’s subjects.

England had various reasons for considering Ulster as their next conquest. Firstly, England was in the midst of the Agrarian revolution and needed more resources to succeed (Maxwell 167). Secondly, the occupation of Ulster would facilitate the spread of Protestantism among the Irish and compel them to conform to the English laws. Thirdly, the English government considered that the plantation would secure them against attack by the Spaniards. (Maxwell 167). The government, therefore, formulated a policy in favor of the Plantation of Ulster.

Officials from the English government disregarded the Irish laws and their social system. Due to the conflicting elements between the English and the Irish laws, the government’s officials faced challenges when dealing with the Irish people (Maxwell 171). The feudal ideas had dissolved the clan systems and the chiefs had lost claim over the land. The chiefs, who had initially acted as a bridge between the English monarchs and the English people, had lost this opportunity. The government officials, therefore, had to follow their logical preferences.

The English government formed commissions to facilitate the plantation process. The three commissions took place in 1608, 1609, and 1610 (Maxwell 171). They aimed at establishing the Crown’s claim on the land, surveying the counties, and making final arrangements for the plantation. The government also relied on the insights of John Davies, the Attorney- General, who had refuted the Irish nationals’ rights of owning the land. Thus, with the progress, the plantation was ready to commence.

Plantation’s Design

The plantation’s design underwent various changes until a final model emerged. According to Canny (164), five factors influenced the formulation of the final project. The first factor involved the hierarchy system, which spelled out the order of occupying the land. The second considered economic development through the establishment of towns. The third focused on religious reformations, while the fourth dealt with the close observations of natives. The last factor aimed at compensating the inhabitants who had been displaced by the undertakers.

After making the considerations, the government rolled out the plantation’s plan. The English government divided the six counties of Armagh, Donegal, Coleraine, Tyrone, Cavan, and Fermanagh into 1000, 1500, and 2000 acre portions (Maxwell 171). These lands would belong to the Scottish and English settlers and had to build strong houses. London companies also acquired some land as they showed the potential to boost the project economically (Robinson 80). Thus, the English men and Scottish settlers had the first preference in occupying Ulster.

The English government hoped that by strictly following the rules, the settlers would occupy Ulster successfully. The English and Scottish planters had to pay an annual rent of approximately 5 euros (Canny 218). Military men would pay the same amount, but if they let out their land to the natives, they had to pay around 8 euros (Canny 219). Finally, the natives who were to acquire land were to pay 10 euros for the same area as other settlers. Therefore, the allocation of land showed discrimination against the Irish people.

The plantation of Ulster was a spectacular failure due to several reasons. Firstly, the government’s expectations in the plantation’s plan were unrealistic and could not be achieved (Canny 220). Meeting the building requirements deemed expensive and unattainable for the London companies, despite their economic statuses. The demand for construction materials resulted in clearing vast pieces of land, and this caused the displacement of Irish natives. Therefore, the Irish people had to vacate their original lands and search for other residences.

Secondly, the plan to settle many English men in Ulster was an uphill task. The British had more interest in other parts of Ireland compared to Ulster (Canny 229). Many Scottish settlers had migrated to Antrim and Down counties as facilitated by the Privy Council of Scotland, even before the flight of earls (Canny 208). Most of the Scottish undertakers failed to secure their lands due to debt accumulations and surrendered them to other Scot immigrants. Hence, the plantation of Ulster comprised a fewer number of British settlers than the government had anticipated.

Thirdly, the English government failed to achieve its initial goal of the plantation’s design. For instance, the undertakers had gone against the rule of having Irish tenants on their land (Canny 235). Later, the government had to allow them to occupy at least an eighth of the lands, a plan that did not exist at the beginning. Also, the settlement of English men in specific parts of the province was against the project’s design of achieving uniform British settlement (Robinson 95). Thus, the presence of many Irish tenants in Ulster posed a security challenge to the government.

Conclusion

Lastly, the plantation of Ulster did not contribute to significant religious conformity. Despite a few clergymen’s conversion to the state Church, a majority of the Irish natives reverted to the Catholic faith (Shuckburgh 40). Moreover, more settlers held leadership positions in the church than the natives, and this contributed to the supplanting of the Irish clergy. However, the Gaelic population was not receptive to the settler clergy’s demands and rebelled against their practices, for instance, their tithing requirements (Mac Cuarta 37). Therefore, the English government failed to propagate Protestantism in Ulster.